The behaviourist approaches founder was J. B. Watson , he wrote the ‘Behaviourist Manifesto’ in 1910 and believed that for psychology to be a science it needed to model itself on the natural sciences and transform the area of interest from mind to behaviour. Watson believed that learning occurred by association , if two stimulus were associated in a sequence, the repetition of this was essential for learning. This was known as the ‘law of exercise’ (6). The themes of behaviour shaping and learning are important ideas in a behaviourist psychology.
A key is that learning takes place by conditioning; learned behaviour is described in stimulus- response psychology. These techniques of learning theory are known as operant and classical conditioning. J. B. Watson’s early summations was furthered in classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov in (1927). While working with dogs and their digestive systems, he noticed that the dogs salivated before he gave them food this gave him ideas to expand research. He then noticed when he placed food in front of a group of dogs they salivated.
This was a natural reaction so it was named an unconditional response(UCR) (2) . The food was an unconditional stimulus (UCS) as the dogs will automatically salivate and the saliva was an unconditioned response (UCR), as they naturally began to salivate. During conditioning he then used other devices, a bell, a conditioned stimulus (CS) as the dog was being conditioned to the bell, paired with the food (UCS) this caused salivation the (UCR). (2) After conditioning trials the bell (CS) was then sounded with no food present and the dog began to salivate, now a conditioned response.
What was previously an unlearned (unconditional response) to the food, salivation, has become a learned (conditional) response to the bell. What was apparent here is that behaviour can be learnt due to experience. A second conditioning method is operant, operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that there is a voluntary action of behaviour rather than a reflex of behaviour. B. F. Skinner in (1930’s) , was interested in predicting “How we will behave? Rather than how we did behave? “. (R. Gross 2001 page 147) He devised a device known as a ‘Skinner box’.
Inside the box was a lever, lights, food, delivery chute a metal grid floor and a rat. (6) Inside the cage ,if the mechanical lever was pulled, the rat would get food pellet. After a trial and error learning period the rat eventually learnt to push the lever and a reward was given. The reward in this instance was named by Skinner as a reinforcement, this is something that strengthens the response so increases the likelihood of repeating the behaviour (7). A main concept is that behaviour can be controlled through positive and negative reinforcement (7)
Behaviourists believe that ‘abnormal’ behaviour is the result of sequences of reinforced behaviour. This approach ignores any possible underlying causes of disturbed behaviour. Inappropriate learnt behaviour is relinquished so new forms of learning can develop that are constructive for the patients personality(8). A way of doing this is by behaviour therapy. Behaviour therapy is separated into two categories based on conditioning methods. Aversion therapy is a classical conditioning technique used in a medical setting. This idea teaches a patient to increase their level of fear associated with operating unwanted behaviour (4).
Demographically the therapy is used on sex offenders or persons with stimulant addictions. Alcohol is paired with an emetic drug that induces nausea and vomiting (6) . In the case of alcohol aversion therapy the emetic drug (UCS), is paired with vomiting (UCR). Alcohol the (CS) is then introduced with the emetic drug (UCS), this causes an (CR) of vomiting after the conditioning process. Avoidance learning of alcohol ensues (6). Alcoholics use the emetic antabuse , it is implanted under the skin and remains active in the body over a lengthy period (1).
If a recovering alcoholic has drink during this period they will feel sick. The effectiveness of this procedure has been of varying degree. A study by Wallerstein (1957) found only 24% of a sample of alcoholics improved, contrary to this by Meyer and Chester (1970) asserted that over half their patients rejected for at least a year so the evidence is incomplete (2). However, the ethical objections to this procedure need to be considered. It could be argued that this isn’t a humane therapy as vomiting in public is quite an unpleasant side effect.
Drinking can also be seen as an important activity and socially gratifying, this could leave a vacuum in patients life so to turn to other deviant behaviours for example , narcotics. Also the conditioned response of vomiting may mean that a person generalizes to other stimulus for example, soft drinks (6). Moreover, the effects of antabuse could fail after a considerable amount of time so the person repeats the drinking behaviour. Behaviour modification is a form of therapy. This approach uses operant conditioning techniques.
A behaviour program is designed to reinforce good behaviours. “The program rewards for desirable behaviour and withholds for undesirable behaviour. ” ((5) page 113). An adaptive behaviour approach is known as the token economy system this is used in psychiatric institutions. The token system awards patients for socially desirable and constructive behaviour . The tokens (CS) at an operant level, are given for good behaviour, for example, tidying their room. The token is the secondary reinforcer while the primary reinforcer are the rewards that can be exchanged for tokens .
These privileges include favourite television programmes or a consultation with a psychologist (2). The idea is to assert independence in the patient’s life so their less reliant on the carer. Walker (1984) agrees this has had positive effects. “There seems little doubt that well run token economy programmes do produce behaviour change, in the required direction even among chronic instutionalized schizophrenics. ” A further point is that in this system the appearance of disruptive behaviour is less likely, as ‘abnormal’ behaviour cannot function with adaptive ones (5).
However, there has been criticisms, firstly unconditional rewards are rarely apparent in non institutionalised settings. Transferring to social reinforces in society can be a problem. “A mercenary approach can be taken to learning. Unproductive in the outside, where it is necessary to learn to operate on a subtler and less immediate award system”. (Baddley 1990 R. Gross page 674) Also from a interactionist perspective. The reinforcement strategy is not the only factor in a patients road to mental wealth. Studies have proved that the level of social interaction the staff have with the clients is paramount.
Wood (1984) found that the staff who interacted with patients on a higher level, for example, invited the patients to tea. This natural interaction reinforced the natural behaviour so improved the patients social beahaviour. A second approach of a scientific nature is the analogy of behaviour being understood in a physiological critique. The bio medical perspective grew after Darwinism and our acceptance of the evolution and consequently correlation of genetic and behavioural characteristics with primates(www. eca. com. ve) .
This evolutionary idea uses biological functions of behaviour, linked to psychological mechanisms it explains behaviour in terms of the central nervous system, hormonal actions via the autonomic nervous system and the activity of electrical transmissions via neurons (6). This approach is materialist in that it assumes all behaviour has physiological basis and that the body and mind are the same. This demonstrates, according to the medical approach, that psychological behaviour is governed by the brain so therefore all thoughts, feeling and behaviours have a biological cause.
This biological explanation means that psychiatry can be understood in a medical framework Physiological psychology is technique that studies the biology of psychological processes, examples of these are attention and emotion these are a major area of interest in the explanation of mental disorders including schizophrenia(6). Bleuler (1911) first coined the term schizophrenia, the actual meaning of schizophrenia is ‘split mind’ so this label explained the illness as ‘the personality losing its unity'(Kimble D (1995)).
The symptoms of schizophrenia according to Schneider’s(1959) summations are thought disturbances, auditory hallucinations and primary delusions these observable symptoms are used to diagnose schizophrenia. The medical model inserts that ‘abnormal’ behaviour can be described as mental illness and that disorders such as schizophrenia and depression can be managed by using chemotherapy (8). Chemotherapy is a branch of somatic treatment, this involves the use of psychotropic drugs that are designed to affect mental symptoms. Gelder (1999) comprised six groups of psychotropic drugs, these included anti depressants.
Anti depressants are used to remove states of mind which are characterized by sadness, lack of self esteem and general depression (7). These drugs increase uptake of serotonin and noradrenaline to stimulate the brain. A type of antidepressant that does this are specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRI’s). Examples of these are paroextine and fluxeotine (Prozac).. Prozac are a effective antidote for treating mild depression, since 1998 38 million people world wide have used prozac so this shows it is a well distributed and reputable drug (7).
A estimation by the World Health Organisation is that by 2010 1 in 3 persons will suffer from depression, that is approximately 18 million people in the United kingdom, this explains prozacs large usage. Also, a positive factor of prozac is that it is fairly unlikely to overdose on it, this is a important property for a anti depressant (6) However, there has been controversy surrounding prozac’s prevalence. A main criticism is the apparent accessibility and affordability of prozac means that other therapies such as cognitive, which is economically less efficient are being sacrificed.
Moreover the ‘designer drug’ ideal that the drug has may be used as stimulant by the population holistically, as prozac increases assertiveness and relationships. This has important ideological consequences on our ability to change the ‘self’ and our dependency to the drug (6). Also there have been ethical implications surrounding prozac, according to Healey (2000) 250,000 people world wide taking prozac have attempted suicide because of the drug and 25,000 of these will have succeeded.
However, this is a minority compared to the many millions that have successfully used the drugs (6). To conclude, A main similarity in the approaches is the scientific similarity, as humans we are seen as organisms. This approach does not try to delve into the mind and its mental processes. It sees this void as to vast the brain is seen as a black box, unknowable and unknown. This contrasts with the biological approach that emphasizes ‘ getting inside the black box’, they look at the internal structure of the organism.
All psychological behaviour, for example, schizophrenia is firstly physiological so all thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are governed by the brain. However, this does not mean that the human is seen holistically as in humanist psychology. Also a main difference, in the biological perspective is that behaviour is determinstic through genetics, a example is schizophrenia, this disorder is based on biology so it should be alleviated with a bio chemical based therapy. However, a behaviourisr would summate that behaviour modification and so learning and reinforcing behaviour is a therapeutic solution.
A main difference here is the role enviroment has in this instance, from biological perspective enviroment factors are not of interest as everything is a biological cause. However, a behavioural theory would see environment as in the behaviour modification factors as a basis for behaviour shaping. Both approaches advocate the use of animals in experiments, they believe in controllable experiments these approaches could be said to be reductionist as the similarities between species, for example, cancer and rats and learning differences have given differing results.
There is also ethical considerations a early behaviourist study known as ‘the operant conditioning of vegetative organism’ and biological experimentation on primates, gives questionable morality issues. However, these approaches have improved the lives of many mental health patients through, techniques of behaviour modification to chemotherapy , improving their quality of life and utilty in society.