Expectations. The self-esteem of cultural groups who find themselves low in the stacking order is hardly to be high. Policies of exclusion in sport and recreation simply serve to reinforce what is almost a self-fulfilling prophecy of low expectations and achievements. TARGET GROUPS Where specific groups are targeted for particular finding or provision. For any targeting to be effective, such groups are identified as sub groups of a larger disadvantaged group. Targeting policies are more likely to be effective where a specific sub-group with specific needs is identified. E. g. — ethnic women disabled people, the elderly, etc.
Targeting therefore identifies specific groups for whom normal levels of provision are insufficient, but who, if encouraged may well develop a capability for self-empowerment. Athletes are encouraged to behave in ways that would not be allowed in other areas of life. This can pose special problems for sport. Culture and tradition plays a large part in such interpretations of what is acceptable and not. In America the now infamous ‘Lombardian Ethic’ was a major part in sport as it favoured the rule of ‘ winning at all cost’ including cheating. This term has now declined, however it has been devised in a new conception called sportsmanship.
The term sportsmanship is though to have originated from public schools when boys participated, they saw that it was better to ‘lose honourably than to win by cheating’. Nethertheless, many people do not prefer this view that it is better to ‘get away with whatever you can’. Therefore changing views and social values must inevitably find their way into any current sporting mortality. The potential rewards for the success often outweigh any such moral considerations. However, this term is sometimes replaced by gamesmanship, which is the intention to compete to the limits allowed by the rules and beyond, if that is achievable without penalty.
Deviance in the Olympics can also occur by relating to the use of drugs. In the last 20 years, drug taking has become a very common part of top class sport, in spite of the efforts of various national and international doping committees. It appears that the chemist supplying sportspeople with drugs are trying to keep one step ahead. However, there are problem with defining how the use of drugs can be deviant in sport. A simple way of explaining deviance in sport is any behaviour designed to gain unfair advantage by the means of: – Gamesmanship – Interfering with equipment
– Knowingly taking banned substances for the purpose of gaining unfair advantage… Ben Johnson demonstrated an example of deviance in sport. Johnson decided to gain advantage from the use of steroids. He was stripped of his medal and banned from athletics for life. The latest challenge centres on the use of EPO, which increases blood oxygenation by forming additional red blood cells. This improves stamina and the drug can be produced comparatively cheaply. The IOC anti doping campaign is based upon 3 principles: – The protection of athletes – Respect for medical and sports ethics – Ensuring an equal chance for everyone during competitions.