The activity of the pituitary gland at this time results in the increased secretion of hormones, with widespread physiological effects. Growth hormone produces a rapid growth spurt, which brings the body close to its adult height and weight in about two years. The growth spurt occurs earlier among females than males, also indicating that females mature sexually earlier than males. Intellectual Development No dramatic changes take place in intellectual functions during adolescence. The ability to understand complex problems develops gradually. The French psychologist Jean Piaget determined that adolescence is the beginning of the stage of formal operational thought. Piaget assumed that this stage occurs among all people regardless of educational or related experiences.
Emotional Development The American psychologist G. Stanley Hall asserted that “adolescence is a period of emotional stress, resulting from the rapid and extensive physiological changes occurring at pubescence” (Child Care and Education: Penny Tassoni). The German-born American psychologist Erik Erikson sees development as a psychosocial process going on through life. The psychosocial task of adolescence is to develop from a dependent to an independent person, whose identity allows the person to relate to others in an adult fashion (intimacy). The occurrence of emotional problems varies among adolescents.
Menopause is the permanent ending of menstruation in women. Menopause marks the end of a woman’s natural ability to bear children. Menopause is usually preceded by 10 to 15 years during which the ovaries gradually stop producing eggs and sex hormones, a period called the climacteric. The experience of menopause differs among women, depending on differences in diet and nutrition, general health and health care, and even how women are taught to think about menopause. Not all women experience symptoms.
For a number of years before menopause women may notice longer menstrual periods, heavier menstrual flow, spotting, or irregularity. Hormone pills or low-dose birth control pills may be prescribed to control bleeding problems. Hot flashes or hot flushes range from a passing feeling of warmth in the face and upper body to extreme sweating and visible redness of the skin followed by chills. Heart palpitations and feelings of suffocation can also occur.
Psychological symptoms may include depression, mood swings, weepiness, and other emotional flare-ups, as well as memory lapses. Although declining levels of oestrogen may play a role in these symptoms, a number of other factors and stresses need to be considered as well. Excess alcohol, caffeine, or sugar may stress the adrenal glands and decrease the amount of adrenal androgens available for conversion to oestrogen, thereby lowering oestrogen and making menopausal symptoms worse. Smoking decreases oestrogen production by the ovaries, leading to earlier menopause and osteoporosis. Stressful life events that may contribute to the emotional symptoms at the time of menopause include children leaving home and caring for aging parents.
Erikson believes that we go through eight life stages. The stages are: Stage One, First Year of Life: Trust versus Mistrust. Babies have to decide whether the world and the people around them are safe and friendly or hostile. If babies do not have their needs met, they may decide their world is a hostile one. This can mean they would find it harder to form relationships later on in life. Stage Two, 1-3 Years: Autonomy versus shame and doubt. Children are learning to explore their environment and develop some control over their bodies and bowel movements. They may try to do this for the first time – e.g. dressing. If children are not given encouragement to explore or are made to feel guilty about toilet accidents, they may feel doubt about themselves. This can mean they will be less independent when older.
Stage Three, 3-5 Years: Initiative versus guilt. Children are increasingly able to plan and carry out activities. They also need to learn about their gender role. Children need to feel they are independent, although they need to learn what the boundaries on their behaviour are. Too much control of the child may result in a fearful, dependent child. Stage Four, 6-12 Years: Industry versus Inferiority. In these years, children are comparing themselves to other children. Children, who experience failure and notice that they are not as competent in some areas as their peers, may lose confidence. Children in this stage who meet only with success may become over-confident and lack humility and empathy.
Stage Five, Adolescence: Identity versus role confusion. Adolescents need to consider their identity – sexual identity and also what they wish to become in the future. Ideally, at the end of this stage, adolescents have a firm idea of who they are and what they want to go on and do. Stage Six, Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation. This age group may be considering whether to live alone or find a partner to settle down with. Adults must decide whether to form a couple or stay single. If this conflict is not resolved, they may find themselves unable to commit to a relationship.
Stage Seven, Middle adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation. Adults in this stage are often having their own children or are making progress in their careers. In this stage, adults are trying to make an impact on the future. Most people have children or try hard in their careers. If adults feel they have not left their mark on life, they may feel bitter and resentful. Stage Eight, Late adulthood: Ego integrity versus despair. Adults in this stage are thinking more about their mortality. In this stage, adults are trying to come to terms with themselves and the way they have lived their lives. They may feel satisfied and accepting themselves or they may feel depressed and bitter.