Based on the notions of B. F. Skinner on operant conditioning, reinforced behaviors are strengthened while those that either neglected or punished are reduced (Westen, 2006). While a positive reinforcement increases the occurrence of the desired behavior due to rewards like praise or objects, negative reinforcement decreases undesired behavior as a result of unpleasant intervention such as criticism (Westen, 2006). On the other hand, punishment is the application of aversive means to reduce or terminate undesired behaviors.
In terms of psychological conflict resolution, full encouragement is given to the client for behavioral change through other techniques mentioned earlier such as free association, confrontation, and working through processes (Westen, 2006). Behavioral analysis is utilized to determine the antecedents or stimulus-evoking behavior, the behavior or response to a specific stimulus, and consequences of acted behavior (Westen, 2006). The examination of the behavioral chains is a key role in creation and adjustment of behavioral contingencies.
The results of this process lead to the identification of behavioral problems that are classified as excesses or frequently displayed behaviors, deficits or rarely-occurring behaviors, and inappropriateness or behaviors displayed in inappropriate context (Westen, 2006). Meanwhile, in behavioral modification, systematically done through contingency management, the consequences of acted desired behavior are directed towards the reinforcement of such and termination of undesired one (Westen, 2006).
The process of reinforcing desired behavior is called shaping while showing an appropriate behavior on a specific context is termed as modeling. The modeled and shaped behavior can be strengthened by means of rehearsal wherein the client is given reinforcement in acting desired behavior appropriate in a given context (Westen, 2006). Nevertheless, clients can also be exposed in a conflict-evoking situation as counterconditioning is applied to reciprocate the undesired behavior with the desired one.
This can be done through Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing or EMDR therapy, flooding, exposure therapy, and systematic desensitization (Westen, 2006). The prolonged and intentional exposure to the source of fear and prevention of avoidance behavior or active response prevention is done by means of exposure therapy (Westen, 2006). Through habituation process, the avoidance behavior can be eliminated. Similarly, clients are trained to develop anxiety hierarchy by exposure to fear-evoking situations.
By means of constant exposure and relaxation training the client would develop courage in facing the situation, thus, completely desensitized (Westen, 2006). Also, in flooding, the client is constantly exposed to the source of psychological conflict either in actual or imaginary, as the use of coping technique is inhibited (Westen, 2006). As time passed by, the client would develop autoimmunity against that particular situation.
On the other hand, EMDR is used for the traumatic memories adaptation of the client. In this process, the client is given assistance to visualize a traumatic experience, feel the physical sensation, and look at the finger of the therapist as it swings back and forth (Westen, 2006). Then, the client is asked to block negative experiences, deeply breath, and express thoughts and feelings (Westen, 2006). Cognitive Therapy Cognitive therapy is a psychotherapy based primarily on the patient’s present problems.
Cognitive therapists provide assistance to the client to facilitate the recognition of maladaptive thoughts, its impact to his or her behavior, and the possible replacement for such behavior. This treatment lasts for sixteen weeks and may work best for 50% of the total number of cases (Tonks, 2003). At present, its efficacy after one year treatment and its comparison with drug treatments are not available. It is also described as the most expensive and time-consuming method of intervention (Tonks, 2003).